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<title>Hardware security module</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Hardware security module</span></span>

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<p>A <b>hardware security module</b> (<b>HSM</b>) is a physical computing device that safeguards and manages secrets (most importantly <a href="Digital_keys" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital keys">digital keys</a>), and performs <a href="Encryption" title="Encryption">encryption</a> and decryption functions for <a href="Digital_signature" title="Digital signature">digital signatures</a>, strong authentication and other cryptographic functions.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These modules traditionally come in the form of a plug-in card or an external device that attaches directly to a <a href="Computer" title="Computer">computer</a> or <a href="Server_(computing)" title="Server (computing)">network server</a>. A hardware security module contains one or more <a href="Secure_cryptoprocessor" title="Secure cryptoprocessor">secure cryptoprocessor</a> <a href="Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">chips</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Design">Design</h2></div>

<p>HSMs may have features that provide tamper evidence such as visible signs of tampering or logging and alerting, or tamper resistance which makes tampering difficult without making the HSM inoperable, or tamper responsiveness such as deleting keys upon tamper detection.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each module contains one or more <a href="Secure_cryptoprocessor" title="Secure cryptoprocessor">secure cryptoprocessor</a> chips to prevent tampering and <a href="Bus_analyzer" title="Bus analyzer">bus probing</a>, or a combination of chips in a module that is protected by the tamper evident, tamper resistant, or tamper responsive packaging. A vast majority of existing HSMs are designed mainly to manage secret keys. Many HSM systems have means to securely back up the keys they handle outside of the HSM. Keys may be backed up in wrapped form and stored on a <a href="Disk_storage" title="Disk storage">computer disk</a> or other media, or externally using a secure portable device like a <a href="Smartcard" class="mw-redirect" title="Smartcard">smartcard</a> or some other <a href="Security_token" title="Security token">security token</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>HSMs are used for real time authorization and authentication in critical infrastructure thus are typically engineered to support standard high availability models including <a href="Computer_cluster" title="Computer cluster">clustering</a>, automated <a href="Failover" title="Failover">failover</a>, and redundant <a href="Field-replaceable_unit" title="Field-replaceable unit">field-replaceable components</a>.

</p><p>A few of the HSMs available in the market have the capability to execute specially developed modules within the HSM's secure enclosure. Such an ability is useful, for example, in cases where special algorithms or business logic has to be executed in a secured and controlled environment. The modules can be developed in native <a href="C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C language</a>, .NET, <a href="Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a>, or other programming languages.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Certification">Certification</h2></div>

<p>Due to the critical role they play in securing applications and infrastructure, general purpose HSMs and/or the cryptographic modules are typically certified according to internationally recognized standards such as <a href="Common_Criteria" title="Common Criteria">Common Criteria</a> (e.g. using Protection Profile EN 419 221-5, "Cryptographic Module for Trust Services") or <a href="FIPS_140" title="FIPS 140">FIPS 140</a> (currently the 3rd version, often referred to as FIPS 140-3). Although the highest level of <a href="FIPS_140" title="FIPS 140">FIPS 140</a> security certification attainable is Security Level 4, most of the HSMs have Level 3 certification. In the Common Criteria system the highest EAL (Evaluation Assurance Level) is EAL7, most of the HSMs have EAL4+ certification. When used in financial payments applications, the security of an HSM is often validated against the HSM requirements defined by the <a href="Payment_Card_Industry_Security_Standards_Council" title="Payment Card Industry Security Standards Council">Payment Card Industry Security Standards Council</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p>A hardware security module can be employed in any application that uses digital keys. Typically, the keys would be of high value - meaning there would be a significant, negative impact to the owner of the key if it were compromised.

</p><p>The functions of an HSM are:

</p>

<ul><li>onboard secure cryptographic key generation,</li>

<li>onboard secure cryptographic key storage, at least for the top level and most sensitive keys, which are often called master keys,</li>

<li>key management,</li>

<li>use of cryptographic and sensitive data material, for example, performing decryption or digital signature functions,</li>

<li>onboard secure deletion of cryptographic and other sensitive data material that was managed by it.</li></ul>

<p>HSMs are also deployed to manage <a href="Transparent_data_encryption" title="Transparent data encryption">transparent data encryption</a> keys for databases and keys for storage devices such as <a href="Disk_encryption" title="Disk encryption">disk</a> or <a href="Magnetic_tape_data_storage" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic tape data storage">tape</a>.

</p><p>Some HSM systems are also hardware <a href="SSL_acceleration" class="mw-redirect" title="SSL acceleration">cryptographic accelerators</a>. They usually cannot beat the performance of hardware-only solutions for symmetric key operations. However, with performance ranges from 1 to 10,000 1024-bit <a href="RSA_(algorithm)" class="mw-redirect" title="RSA (algorithm)">RSA</a> signatures per second, HSMs can provide significant CPU offload for asymmetric key operations. Since the <a href="National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology" title="National Institute of Standards and Technology">National Institute of Standards and Technology</a> (NIST) is recommending the use of 2,048 bit RSA keys from year 2010,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> performance at longer key sizes has become more important. To address this issue, most HSMs now support <a href="Elliptic_curve_cryptography" class="mw-redirect" title="Elliptic curve cryptography">elliptic curve cryptography</a> (ECC), which delivers stronger encryption with shorter key lengths.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="PKI_environment_(CA_HSMs)">PKI environment (CA HSMs)</h3></div>

<p>In <a href="Public_Key_Infrastructure" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Key Infrastructure">PKI</a> environments, the HSMs may be used by <a href="Certification_authority" class="mw-redirect" title="Certification authority">certification authorities</a> (CAs) and <a href="Registration_authority" title="Registration authority">registration authorities</a> (RAs) to generate, store, and handle asymmetric key pairs. In these cases, there are some fundamental features a device must have, namely:

</p>

<ul><li>Logical and physical high-level protection</li>

<li>Multi-part user authorization schema (see <a href="Secret_sharing" title="Secret sharing">secret sharing</a>)</li>

<li>Full audit and log traces</li>

<li>Secure key backup</li></ul>

<p>On the other hand, device performance in a PKI environment is generally less important, in both online and offline operations, as Registration Authority procedures represent the performance bottleneck of the Infrastructure.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Card_payment_system_HSMs_(bank_HSMs)">Card payment system HSMs (bank HSMs)</h3></div>

<p>Specialized HSMs are used in the payment card industry. HSMs support both general-purpose functions and specialized functions required to process transactions and comply with industry standards. They normally do not feature a standard <a href="Application_programming_interface" class="mw-redirect" title="Application programming interface">API</a>.

</p><p>Typical applications are transaction authorization and payment card personalization, requiring functions such as:

</p>

<ul><li>verify that a user-entered PIN matches the reference PIN known to the card issuer</li>

<li>verify credit/debit card transactions by checking card security codes or by performing host processing components of an <a href="EMV" title="EMV">EMV</a> based transaction in conjunction with an <a href="ATM_controller" title="ATM controller">ATM controller</a> or <a href="Payment_terminal" title="Payment terminal">POS terminal</a></li>

<li>support a crypto-API with a <a href="Smart_card" title="Smart card">smart card</a> (such as an <a href="EMV" title="EMV">EMV</a>)</li>

<li>re-encrypt a PIN block to send it to another authorization host</li>

<li>perform secure <a href="Key_management" title="Key management">key management</a></li>

<li>support a protocol of POS ATM network management</li>

<li>support de facto standards of host-host key | data exchange API</li>

<li>generate and print a "PIN mailer"</li>

<li>generate data for a magnetic stripe card (PVV, <a href="Card_Verification_Value" class="mw-redirect" title="Card Verification Value">CVV</a>)</li>

<li>generate a card keyset and support the personalization process for <a href="Smart_card" title="Smart card">smart cards</a></li></ul>

<p>The major organizations that produce and maintain standards for HSMs on the banking market are the <a href="Payment_Card_Industry_Security_Standards_Council" title="Payment Card Industry Security Standards Council">Payment Card Industry Security Standards Council</a>, <a href="ASC_X9" title="ASC X9">ANS X9</a>, and <a href="International_Organization_for_Standardization" title="International Organization for Standardization">ISO</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="SSL_connection_establishment">SSL connection establishment</h3></div>

<p>Performance-critical applications that have to use <a href="HTTPS" title="HTTPS">HTTPS</a> (<a href="Secure_Sockets_Layer" class="mw-redirect" title="Secure Sockets Layer">SSL</a>/<a href="Transport_Layer_Security" title="Transport Layer Security">TLS</a>), can benefit from the use of an SSL Acceleration HSM by moving the RSA operations, which typically requires several large integer multiplications, from the host CPU to the HSM device. Typical HSM devices can perform about 1 to 10,000 1024-bit RSA operations/second.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some performance at longer key sizes is becoming increasingly important.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="DNSSEC">DNSSEC</h3></div>

<p>An increasing number of registries use HSMs to store the key material that is used to sign large <a href="Zonefile" class="mw-redirect" title="Zonefile">zonefiles</a>. <a href="OpenDNSSEC" title="OpenDNSSEC">OpenDNSSEC</a> is an open-source tool that manages signing DNS <a href="Zone_file" title="Zone file">zone files</a>.

</p><p>On January 27, 2007, <a href="ICANN" title="ICANN">ICANN</a> and <a href="Verisign" title="Verisign">Verisign</a>, with support from the <a href="U.S._Department_of_Commerce" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Department of Commerce">U.S. Department of Commerce</a>, started deploying <a href="Domain_Name_System_Security_Extensions" title="Domain Name System Security Extensions">DNSSEC</a> for <a href="DNS_root_zone" title="DNS root zone">DNS root zones</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Root signature details can be found on the Root DNSSEC's website.<sup id="cite_ref-root_dnssec_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-root_dnssec-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Blockchain_and_HSMs">Blockchain and HSMs</h3></div>

<p><a href="Blockchain" title="Blockchain">Blockchain</a> technology depends on cryptographic operations. Safeguarding private keys is essential to maintain the security of blockchain processes that utilize asymmetric cryptography. The private keys are often stored in a <a href="Cryptocurrency_wallet" title="Cryptocurrency wallet">cryptocurrency wallet</a> like the hardware wallet in the image.

</p><p>The synergy between HSMs and blockchain is mentioned in several papers, emphasizing their role in securing private keys and verifying identity, e.g. in contexts such as blockchain-driven mobility solutions.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<li><a href="Public_key_infrastructure" title="Public key infrastructure">Public key infrastructure</a></li>

<li><a href="Secure_cryptoprocessor" title="Secure cryptoprocessor">Secure cryptoprocessor</a></li>

<li><a href="Security_token" title="Security token">Security token</a></li>

<li><a href="Transparent_data_encryption" title="Transparent data encryption">Transparent data encryption</a></li>

<li><a href="Security_switch" title="Security switch">Security switch</a></li>

<li><a href="Trusted_Platform_Module" title="Trusted Platform Module">Trusted Platform Module</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes_and_references">Notes and references</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-root_dnssec-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-root_dnssec_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.root-dnssec.org/">Root DNSSEC</a></span>

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<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFShbairGavrilovState2021" class="citation book cs1">Shbair, Wazen M.; Gavrilov, Eugene; State, Radu (May 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220706193730/https://orbilu.uni.lu/handle/10993/46760">"HSM-based Key Management Solution for Ethereum Blockchain"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://orbilu.uni.lu/handle/10993/46760"><i>2021 IEEE International Conference on Blockchain and Cryptocurrency (ICBC)</i></a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>3. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FICBC51069.2021.9461136">10.1109/ICBC51069.2021.9461136</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-6654-3578-9</bdi>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:235637476">235637476</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9461136">the original</a> on 2022-07-06<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-08-13</span></span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPirkerFischerWitschnigSteger2021" class="citation book cs1">Pirker, Dominic; Fischer, Thomas; Witschnig, Harald; Steger, Christian (January 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9357605">"Velink - A Blockchain-based Shared Mobility Platform for Private and Commercial Vehicles utilizing ERC-721 Tokens"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/4564041"><i>2021 IEEE 5th International Conference on Cryptography, Security and Privacy (CSP)</i></a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">62–</span>67. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FCSP51677.2021.9357605">10.1109/CSP51677.2021.9357605</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-7281-8621-4</bdi>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:232072116">232072116</a>.</cite></span>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Hardware_security_modules" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Hardware security modules">Hardware security modules</a></span>.</div></div>

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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://csrc.nist.gov/Projects/cryptographic-module-validation-program/validated-modules">Current NIST FIPS-140 certificates</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.commoncriteriaportal.org/products/#DG">Current CC certificates for HSMs (under "Products for digital signatures")</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.opendnssec.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/A-Review-of-Hardware-Security-Modules-Fall-2010.pdf">A Review of Hardware Security Modules</a></li></ul></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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